Generalized Adaptive Boosting and the Geometry of Mistakes

Not all mistakes are alike. For example, in medical diagnosis, false positive and false negative mistakes have a different impact and should not be aggregated. By revisiting the classical theory of boosting through this lens, we introduce the notion of $Z$-learner, which returns weak hypotheses achieving joint false-positive/false-negative guarantees $(FP,FN)$ from some set $Z \subseteq [0,1]^2$. This formulation generalizes the standard notion of $\gamma$-weak learning — recovered by taking $Z=$ { $(z_1,z_2): z_1+z_2<1/2-\gamma$ } — and allows for more flexible notions of weak learnability that account for the impact of the distribution on the achievable learning guarantees. This raises a natural question: which sets Z are boostable? We answer this by giving a complete geometric characterization that unifies, as special cases, both the classical boosting dichotomy and the recent multi-objective extension of Bressan et al. (COLT 2025). We also present an adaptive algorithm for boosting $Z$-learners without relying on the prior knowledge of~$Z$, generalizing AdaBoost's ability to handle unknown margin parameters. Finally, we demonstrate that $Z$-learners can achieve confidence amplification. However, the analysis is significantly more involved than in classical boosting and relies on the centerpoint theorem from discrete and computational geometry.